Introduction
While World War I was raging in Europe, Canadians at home felt the effects as well. The war changed life in Canada and raised issues that continue to affect us today. To support the war effort, people had to do more with less and help raise millions of dollars. The war also led to a national crisis over conscription and legal progress for certain female citizens in Canada.
Work on the home front
The historical term the home front describes what a country’s population does “at home” to support troops away at war. Sometimes these activities are referred to as the “war effort” to represent how citizens at home are still actively involved in the effort to win/end a war.
In the previous learning activity, you learned about new warfare technology that changed combat for all sides of the war. You also learned about some of the most notable battles for Canada’s relatively new army, and what consequences were felt from those losses.
The war effort taking place domestically during the First World War, however, also marked a major transformation for Canadian society. Some social progress was achieved due to a population left imbalanced by men serving overseas, and some public attitudes shifted towards better inclusion due to these circumstances.
Explore the following video clip about the Canadian home front from a TVO program entitled “World War One: A Century On”:
Notebook
After you have reviewed this clip as many times as needed, complete the following notebook task:
- Who are some groups of Canadian citizens that the speaker believes are overlooked in mainstream history?
- What kind of supporting role did they play on the home front? Provide three to four examples of contributions that were made.
What you will learn
After completing this learning activity, you will be able to:
- explain some of the ways that Canadian society was affected by WWI, including the conscription crisis and food rationing
- describe some examples of conflict and cooperation in Canada, such as conscription “dodging” or rejection by French Canadians, and some women gaining the right to vote
- make thoughtful judgments about the impact of the women’s suffrage (voting) movement
- build skills in applying the concept of historical perspective effectively
Contributions from home
The war effort during World War I marked a major transformation for Canadian society. Canada supplied huge amounts of food, raw materials, and ammunition to the Western Allies. To make these contributions, Canadians had to do more with less and find new ways of working.
Rationing
Because of the war, farming, processing, and manufacturing had been cut back in parts of Europe. However, Canada was still producing essential items. By producing more and consuming less, Canadians were able to supply the essentials to soldiers and citizens in Western Europe.
Canadians at home couldn’t just buy what they wanted. Items that were declared essential for the war were sent to the fighting forces in Europe and rationed (limited) at home.
Which items were rationed?
Building supplies, certain foods, and gasoline were among the rationed items.
Gasoline was needed in the war for machines and transportation. On the home front, Canadian adults were limited to 26 L of gas weekly. People were fined for trying to buy more than their limit.
Food rationing meant that each household was allowed to buy only a limited quantity of food staples like flour, sugar, and meat. Each Canadian adult could have 1.8 kg (about 4 lbs) of meat each week. That’s about 225 g (half a pound) per day. Rations of sugar were limited to 220 g (8 oz) per week. That works out to about one ounce (three tablespoons) each day. The government asked people not to hoard or stockpile these goods: anything extra was to be shipped overseas to the war.
Here is an example of a ration card from World War I that entitled a man named Leonard Clarke to his ration of the limited supplies. This particular ration booklet looks like it was not actually used, because none of the information about supplies obtained has been filled in.
World War I ration card, 1918. Ration booklets contained a number of “stamps” that could be redeemed for a specific amount.
Control of limited food
In most households, food was purchased and prepared by women. It was up to them to go out and get the supplies a family was entitled to and make them last for a number of weeks.
Examine these two examples of government publications that offered advice to women.
Attempts to boost national morale
During the war, the Canadian government created media organizations such as the National Film Board and the Wartime Information Board. This created propaganda meant to persuade Canadians to respect rationing, and to feel good about their rationing efforts.
What is propaganda?
Propaganda is a form of communication that’s aimed at influencing people’s attitudes and actions. Propaganda is used to target emotions and manipulate opinions to achieve specific results.
The following poster is one of many that suggested that thrifty housewives were helping Canada win the war. Woman in charge of buying and preparing food were told to “fight the war” by feeding their families inexpensively and well.
A WWI poster encouraging Canadian women to preserve food to avoid waste. Note the “Canada Food Board” symbol at bottom left.
A WWI propaganda poster with the words, 'Waste Not, Want Not.' It shows an older woman instructing a younger woman in the preservation (jarring) of perishable goods.
Paying for the war
The government created new taxes to support the war and also asked Canadians to donate money. Early in the war, citizens generously contributed both supplies and money. However, as the war dragged on year after year, many started to resent the financial burden.
The government used various tactics to encourage Canadians to open their wallets and help pay for the war. As with rationing, propaganda posters rallied those who were “fighting on the home front.”
Join the discussion
Examine the WWI poster encouraging Canadians to donate to the Canadian Patriotic Fund.
What feelings or tone do you think the poster was meant to express to Canadians?
In written format or as an audio/video recording, submit your approximately 100-word response to the discussion board. Make sure to respond to at least one of your peers’ posts.
The WWI conscription crisis
When Britain entered World War I on August 4, 1914, Canada was automatically brought into the war to fight on behalf of its previous ruler Great Britain. Many Canadians volunteered for military service in the initial years of the war, and it was the first time that Canadian soldiers were kept together as units once landed overseas.
By 1917, the number of volunteers was on the decline, and Robert Borden, the prime minister at the time, had to consider a controversial measure: conscription.
Definition
Conscription
Conscription is the term used for mandatory military service - meaning the government in power can force individuals, by law, to sign up for the army.
Few French-speaking volunteers
While many Canadians volunteered in the early days of the First World War, fewer than five percent of these volunteers spoke French. Why were there so few francophone (French-speaking) volunteers?
In Canada, relations between French- and English-speaking citizens were tense for several reasons, including the following:
- In 1913, Ontario had banned French as a language of instruction in its schools, enraging French Canadians.
- Many Quebecers were not motivated to join because they felt little attachment to Britain and didn’t feel it was really “their war.”
- If you spoke French, it was difficult and even dangerous to serve in an English-speaking unit: since all orders were given in a language you did not understand. There were a few bilingual Canadian regiments, but those filled up quickly.
Conscription takes effect
Robert Borden’s Conservative administration introduced the Military Service Act in 1917, which ordered all “able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 45” to serve in the war. Across the country, conscription notices arrived at homes with the following instructions.
A significant number of English-speaking Canadians supported conscription – typically as a form of proving loyalty to Great Britain and honouring Canada’s colonial history as part of the British Empire.
Explore the following three excerpts from English-language newspapers reporting on PM Borden’s new conscription law with a favourable tone:
Think
How does the messaging from English-language newspapers compare to what you have learned about how many French-speaking Canadians felt about conscription?
Opposition to conscription
The Military Service Act and introduction of conscription caused major conflict between communities in Canada.
While many among Canada’s English-speaking majority appeared to support the concept of conscription, there were many who aggressively opposed it. French-speaking, especially in the province of Québec, felt disconnected from Britain and didn’t want to fight in a war they did not feel involved their community or culture.
Appealing and dodging
In addition to the francophones who opposed Canadian conscription during WWI, there were also farmers, labourers, and religious groups who opposed conscription for personal, economic, or moral reasons. Additionally, many English-speaking Canadians did not want to take on conflicts waged by their former colonial authority. The vast majority of the Canadian citizens considered eligible for conscription appealed their call-up notice.
Even though roughly 90 percent of the individuals who were conscripted appealed their notice, the majority of appeals were unsuccessful. As a result, thousands of young men within the age range for enlisting either fled or hid from authorities when PM Borden sent officers to call upon people at their homes.
Nicknamed the “conscription dodgers,” these Canadian citizens faced severe punishment as a result of their avoidance:
Fifteen thousand men were jailed for avoiding conscription. It was not until December 22, 1919 that the Unionist government passed a general amnesty for dodgers and let the men out of prison.
What does this information add to your knowledge of the conscription crisis?
The shifting role of women in Canadian society
While the conscription crisis was targeted at males of a certain age, the war also changed the lives of women in Canada.
Voting rights, opportunities to support the troops as nurses overseas, and new roles in the public workforce marked an important moment of change for some women in Canada. It is important to keep in mind that some of these progressive changes still would not apply to all groups of women for many years to come, and new policies did not benefit all women equally.
Historical thinking concepts
Consider the four historical thinking concepts you were introduced to in Learning Activity 1.1.
One concept is Continuity and Change. If an event or action makes a big impact, that means it generally results in some kind of measurable change. History is not just a list of events. At any point in the past, some things changed while others remained the same. History is a dynamic mix of continuity and change woven together.
Another is the concept of Historical Perspective, which means viewing past actions, events, or issues within the context of the time during which it occurred. In other words, it means keeping in mind the social norms and popular beliefs from a specific time period when analyzing history and trying not to impose today’s values on the past.
Perhaps most importantly, using historical perspective allows you to discover different points of view on a specific event, action, or issue from the past. It reminds us that, within any historical period, there will be diverse experiences and interpretations of any single issue.
When examining the history of women’s rights in Canadian history, it is important to consider which types of women were experiencing significant progress, and if other groups of women received the same benefits.
Press the following tabs to learn more about some notable moments for women’s rights in Canada at the time, as well as considerations of groups or individuals strategically excluded from certain advancements.
Three Canadians who fought for women’s right to vote talking to each other; Nellie McClung (left), Emily Murphy (right), and Laura Jamieson (centre).
Nellie McClung, Emily Murphy, and Laura Jamieson are Canadian “first-wave feminists” - historical figures who fought for female suffrage – the right to vote – throughout the period of First World War. Their advocacy started even earlier than 1914.
Figures like McClung and Murphy have been celebrated throughout history for their activism, but it is important to recognize the historical perspective of their politics: the women involved in this suffrage movement typically held a high socioeconomic status (meaning they came from wealthy or privileged backgrounds), were white and primarily English-speaking, so it would make sense that their activism was targeted at a much more specific group of Canadian women.
In fact, these figures may have promoted other social values that would be considered harmful in today’s context. Emily Murphy and Nellie McClung, for example, were outspoken advocates for the sterilization of Indigenous women in their province of Alberta in order to reduce and eventually eliminate the Indigenous population deemed to be inferior by racist ideologies of the time.
Some Canadian women went overseas in World War I and worked in roles such as nurses, ambulance drivers, and stretcher-bearers. Of the 3,141 women who were World War I nurses, 46 died.
While this marked a major development in Canada’s military identity and shifting public attitudes towards women working in non-traditional roles, this new role supporting Canadian troops in Europe was not available to all women in Canada. Participants had to be trained and certified ahead of the war, requiring them to have already been able to afford a nursing degree.
Additionally, racial discrimination would have also played a role in who was eligible to serve as nurses.
Almost any kind of public employment would have been considered “non-traditional” for women at this time: the social norm in Canadian society was for women to serve in exclusively domestic roles, generally in the privacy of a home.
World War 1 changed this; in the absence of the male citizens who had left to serve in the Canadian army overseas, many Canadian women took on non-traditional jobs to help out with the war effort. A popular example was working at the Canadian munitions factories.
In 1917, Prime Minister Borden desperately needed to win the election so he could implement conscription (a law that forced Canadian men ages 18 to 45 to serve in the Canadian military).
Borden passed the Wartime Elections Act, which not only allowed the soldiers overseas to vote in the Canadian election, but it also extended this right to the overseas nurses and women who had male relatives fighting overseas.
Borden knew these groups would vote for him and for conscription because they wanted to win the war. With this context in mind, voting rights granted to some Canadian women might be better interpreted as a cunning political strategy rather than an authentic social movement for gender equality.
In 1918, the right to vote in federal elections was granted to female citizens, regardless of whether they were associated with the war effort or not. Each province then granted women the vote in provincial elections in the years following, sporadically.
However, at this time, and for many subsequent years, individuals from several Indigenous and racialized groups continued to be disenfranchised. For example, Asian Canadian and Indigenous women would not gain the right to vote until 1948 and 1960.
You have explored a variety of perspectives on the impact of some noteworthy events in this period of Canadian history. Any legal development that leads to wider inclusiveness is a point of progress, but sometimes those benefits don’t reach all members of a certain community. For example, the right to vote would not apply equally to all women in Canada until 1960.
With historical perspective, you can put history into context: perhaps public attitudes towards women in the workforce had shifted, but racial discrimination and heterosexism was not eradicated. Opportunities and access to resources for women didn’t fundamentally change for good, and some of the legal developments for women’s citizenship were either temporary or designed to meet hidden political agendas (for example, Borden wanting to win the 1917 election).
Join the discussion
The concept of historical perspective isn’t limited to studying history. Since it involves thoughtful analysis and understanding context, there are many skills involved in using historical perspective that are useful in everyday life.
Consider some of the skills that you use when investigating history:
- analyzing data like historical records and statistics
- finding information from credible sources (both primary and secondary)
- reading text from primary sources such as historical documents
- critical thinking when judging the significance or consequences of a historical event
There are many other examples of skills that you can build when doing thoughtful historical inquiry. In your opinion, what might be some of the ways that a person could use these skills in everyday life?
Respond to the prompt in a discussion post and respond to two of your peers’ posts.
Conclusion
In many popular versions of history, the First World War brought transformative change to North American society, especially for women. An increase in factory jobs, the ability to serve overseas as military nurses, and eventually the federal right to vote, are all usually celebrated as examples of progress.
Notebook
Consider the five examples you just explored of progress for women’s rights during the First World War. In your notebook, respond to the following prompts in written or recorded format:
- What were some different experiences or perspectives on these moments of progress for different women in Canada?
- What kinds of consequences for some women might have arisen from WWI?
- You may use the following chart to help guide your response.
| Historical moment for women’s rights | Level-of-impact ranking (1-5) |
|---|---|
| Pre-1914: White, upper-class feminists fight for women’s right to vote | |
| 1915: Canadian nurses serve overseas in World War I | |
| 1916: Women work in munitions factories | |
| 1917: Wartime Elections Act (some women gain the right to vote) | |
| 1918: Women in Canada granted right to vote federally |
Primary and secondary sources
Primary sources are firsthand accounts of a historical event and provide real records or evidence. Because these sources were produced at the time of an historical event, they give students of history valuable insight.
Examples of primary sources include:
- photos
- eyewitness or firsthand accounts
- news articles
- posters
- artworks
- recorded interviews (in written, audio, or video formats)
- original pieces of writing such as journals, letters, statements, or speeches
Secondary sources are second-hand accounts. They are more like stories or explanations about issues, events or actions in history. They’re not from the time of the event like primary sources - they come in the years after, and are based on writing and other records from the time in the past.
For example, when you analyze a historical photograph and write down your own interpretation of it, you are creating a secondary source of information (the image itself being the primary source).
Images as primary sources
Have you ever heard the expression, “A picture is worth a thousand words”? Images often document moments in time that would otherwise be lost. Sometimes images are all historians have to explain what was happening at a particular time and place. Firsthand evidence – such as a photo or a recording – gives you a glimpse into what was actually going on when you were not physically present. It’s like getting a snapshot from another time.
Review the Historical moments for women’s rights in Canada interactive timeline from the previous notebook activity, and focus only on the historical photographs.
During your exploration of the images, consider the following:
- What are your first thoughts as you look at each image?
- What details do you observe in the image? Is there more information you can learn?
- Are there parts of the image that are difficult to express in text?
As you practice the habit of analyzing historical images/photographs as rich primary sources, you can use the previous prompts to support your inquiry. You may find your understanding of history deepens when you can compare the points-of-view and messaging of different primary sources relating to the same period or event in history.
Final reflection
Review the examples of propaganda and government advertising that you explored throughout this learning activity. Recall what you learned about the concept of historical perspective and how not all historical events have equal impact on all the individuals and groups involved.
When you are ready, respond to the following prompts in a method of your choice:
- Does this image reflect the reality for all people living in Canada during the era of World War I?
- Would you say that the visual is “directed” at any specific audience?
- Are there individuals or groups being overlooked in these sources?